Works and Days

“Works and Days” is a didactic poem by Hesiod dating to approximately the eighth century BCE. Hesiod begins the poem with the traditional invocation to the muses, but he deviates slightly from this tradition by including personal information; the poem is an explanation of a dispute between Hesiod and his brother Perses over a family inheritance. The poem’s thematic concerns, which Hesiod explores by arguing how harmful his brother’s actions are not only to himself but to the community, include the value of labor among human societies; labor and defining what is just; the interconnectedness of humans, gods, and the natural world; truth versus lies; and divine justice.

Poet Biography

Hesiod was born in Boeotia in central Greece. His father immigrated to Greece from Cyme, a major city in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). Scholars believe that Hesiod may have first been a rhapsodist—someone who recites poetry professionally—thereby learning the tools of the trade before making a name for himself with didactic poetry. Although Hesiod isn’t as influential long-term as Homer, with whom he is often linked, Hesiod was considered a skilled and popular poet in Antiquity. Dating is contested, but the two are typically believed to have been active in the eighth century BCE. Scholars debate whether Hesiod or Homer came first; regardless, Hesiod’s works demonstrate that he was familiar with the Theban and Trojan myths, the subjects of epic poetry. His two surviving epics are “Works and Days” and “Theogony.”

Poem Text

Hesiod. “Works and Days.” Eighth century BCE. Theoi Project.

Summary

The poem begins with an invocation to the Muses, asking them to bestow glory through their song and to sing a hymn to Zeus, who controls outcomes. Hesiod asks to be heard as he addresses his brother Perses about truth and justice. Hesiod explains that there are two types of strife, one commendable, the other reprehensible. The latter “promotes ugly fighting and conflict” (Line 37). The second, bestowed by Zeus for men’s benefit, encourages achievement by making men competitive with each other. Hesiod urges Perses to “lay this down in your heart” so that “Strife who exults in misfortune” (Line 37) does not distract him from work by encouraging him to become involved in disputes. Complaining that Perses bribed elders to give him more than his fair share of their family estate, Hesiod encourages him to “settle [their] dispute with straight judgments” (Line 38) from Zeus.

To explain why work is just and necessary, Hesiod narrates the Prometheus myth. He explains that the gods “keep men’s food concealed” (Line 38). Zeus punished men in this way because he was angry that Prometheus tricked him. As further punishment, Zeus hid fire from them, but Prometheus stole it back against Zeus’s will. In retaliation, Zeus plots for men’s misery that will present as delight, causing them to “embrace their own misfortune” (Line 38). He orders Hephaestus to craft a beautiful woman by mixing “earth with water,” Athena “to teach her crafts,” Aphrodite to make her so charming that she inspires “painful yearning and consuming obsession,” and Hermes to instill her with “a knavish nature” (Lines 38-39). Hermes names her Pandora. Zeus sends Hermes to present her as a gift for Epimetheus, Prometheus’s brother. Prometheus had warned his brother not to accept any gifts from the gods “lest some affliction befall mortals” (Line 39), but Epimetheus did not remember this advice and accepted Pandora. Only after doing so did he realize what he had done. While men had previously lived free of suffering, toil, and sickness, Pandora “unstopped the jar” (Line 39) in which these various ills were contained, unleashing them upon men. “Only hope remained there” (Line 39) because, by the grace of Zeus, Pandora recovered the jar before it could escape.

Hesiod offers to tell “another tale” to explain “how gods and mortal men have come from the same starting point” (Line 40). The Titans created the first tribe of men, a gold tribe that lived without worries, work, or aging. They died peacefully as if falling asleep. When this tribe ended, Zeus honored them by making them “divine spirits” who watch over and bestow wealth upon “mortal men” (Line 40). The next tribe, silver, was “much inferior” (Line 40), lingering in childhood, being mired in violence, and suffering due to their own foolishness. Zeus eventually destroyed them because they did not honor the gods with sacrifices. Nevertheless, when they died out, he gave them a place of honor second to the gold tribe. Zeus created a third tribe unlike the previous two. The bronze tribe was violent and preoccupied with war, as evidenced by their eating only meat and not engaging in agriculture. Destroyed “by their own hands” (Line 41), they descended into Hades.

Zeus created a noble fourth tribe, “the godly race of the heroes who are called demigods” (Line 41). Their penchant for “ugly war and fearful fighting destroyed them” (Line 41). Hesiod refers to the wars at Thebes and Troy and notes that Zeus honored some of these heroes by sending them to “the Isles of the Blessed Ones” (Line 42). The current tribe, the fifth, does not “cease from toil and misery by day or night,” and Hesiod laments that he belongs to it, though it has “good mixed with ill” (Line 42). When infants are born with grey hair, Zeus will destroy this tribe of men too. They will descend into discord and violence, without law, justice, or decency.

Hesiod follows with a fable about a nightingale and a hawk. The nightingale weeps as the hawk carries her away in his claws, and he scolds her, telling her that she is at his mercy, as it always is with the weak and the strong. It is foolish for the weak to struggle against the strong since the weak will suffer “injury on top of insult” (Line 43). Addressing Perses, Hesiod entreats him to seek justice and resist violence. Bribe-takers destroy what is right. Where justice is honored, communities and the people within them flourish. Where justice is not honored, Zeus enacts retribution; an entire community can suffer for the bad acts of a single person. The immortal gods take note of who transgresses and devises punishments for them, thus Hesiod urges elders to uphold justice lest they bring suffering to their communities from their bad acts.

Continuing to address Perses, Hesiod tells him that Inferiority’s road is easy at first and Superiority’s difficult, but the latter is the correct one. A wise man recognizes what will better serve his long-term needs and when he is being given good advice. Perses must also be willing to work, as it is the proper way to avoid hunger, honor the gods, and earn their approval. Property should be gained through work or as a gift from the gods, not through seizure, which earns Zeus’s wrath. Perses must practice restraint and offer sacrifices and libations to the gods. Hesiod also encourages maintaining positive relations with neighbors, especially those who live nearby as they will be in the best position to help in case of problems. He advises being generous with friends and not coveting what one cannot have, since that will lead to sorrow. He encourages trusting but also seeking witnesses (even with one’s own brother), not believing women, and hoping for an only son and grandchildren. If one desires riches, one must be willing to work for them. This is the law whether one lives on the coast or inland.

Hesiod next offers specific farming advice, providing instructions for ploughing, selecting oxen, and reading nature’s signs to determine the best time of day to perform given tasks. Interspersed in this practical advice are Hesiod’s admonitions on praying correctly to Zeus and Demeter. He advises Perses how to prepare for and pass the winter months, “when the cold keeps men from the fields” (Line 51), and how to instruct his laborers. He describes the effects of the North Wind and how to dress in winter to protect from these effects, and he advises what actions to undertake when spring arrives.

If one should prefer “to go to sea (disagreeable as it is)” (Line 55), Hesiod advises avoiding the sea during periods of high wind and storms. He remarks on the importance of organizing cargo to maximize profit, as he and Perses’s father did when he sailed from Cyme to Ascra (a village near Helicon). Hesiod admits that his knowledge of sea-faring is limited to a trip he took to Chalcis, where he participated in and won a poetry contest. Nevertheless, he shares the knowledge he has gained on days and seasons most advantageous for setting sail. He encourages Perses not to overload cargo, whether on land or sea, to avoid destruction of his cart or ship.

Hesiod shifts into wide-ranging and specific advice on living correctly and avoiding becoming the subject of rumors, “light and easy to pick up, but hard to support and difficult to get rid of” (Line 59). Rumor “too is somehow a goddess” (Line 59). He suggests when to marry (around the age of 30), how to pick a wife (she should be around 16 to 18 years old, a virgin, and from a local family), how to make friends (a friend should have a “sparing tongue” and measured disposition), how to sacrifice to the gods properly (always with “washed” hands). Also covered are superstitions regarding cleanliness and lucky days of the month for performing certain tasks and unlucky days to avoid. Those who follow this advice will stand in good stead with the gods.